Magnesium for Sleep Dosage Adults: The 2026 Evidence-Based Guide

By the HealthPerk Editorial Team · Last updated: May 2026

Quick Answer

What is the right magnesium for sleep dosage adults should take?

For sleep specifically, the dosage range with the most consistent randomized-trial signal is 200–400 mg of elemental magnesium taken 30–90 minutes before bed, in a well-absorbed form (glycinate, bisglycinate, threonate, or citrate). The Recommended Dietary Allowance (RDA) for total daily magnesium is 400–420 mg/day for adult men and 310–320 mg/day for adult women (NIH ODS, 2024); the upper limit from supplemental magnesium alone (not food) is 350 mg/day in the United States to avoid osmotic diarrhea, although well-tolerated forms like glycinate are routinely dosed above that under clinical supervision (IOM, 1997; Schwalfenberg & Genuis, 2017). The 2024 Cochrane-style meta-analysis of magnesium for insomnia in adults found a small-to-moderate improvement in sleep onset latency (~17 minutes) and total sleep time (~16 minutes) with 320–500 mg/day for ≥4 weeks, with the cleanest effect in adults whose baseline serum or red-blood-cell magnesium was low (Mah & Pitre, 2024).

Wide horizontal photo of an amber supplement bottle, three cream-colored capsules, and a glass of water on a wooden nightstand under warm bedside light, with a softly blurred bed in the background — illustrating magnesium for sleep dosage adults take in the evening.

The question magnesium for sleep dosage adults ask most often does not have a single answer because the bioavailable elemental dose, the chemical form, the baseline magnesium status of the person, and the underlying sleep complaint all change what works. A 500 mg tablet of magnesium oxide delivers very different elemental magnesium and very different sleep-relevant absorption than a 500 mg capsule of magnesium glycinate. This guide separates dose from form, walks through the evidence behind each form, and explains when magnesium is the right tool for the sleep problem in front of you and when it is not.

Table of Contents

• How Much Magnesium for Sleep: The Dose Question
• Why Magnesium Affects Sleep at All
• Magnesium Glycinate vs Citrate for Sleep
• The Other Forms: Threonate, Malate, Taurate, Oxide
• Timing, Stacking, and Co-Factors
• Safety, Side Effects, and Drug Interactions
• Who Magnesium Helps Most — and Who It Doesn't
• Frequently Asked Questions
• References

How Much Magnesium for Sleep: The Dose Question

Bar chart comparing common supplemental magnesium products by labeled salt mg, elemental magnesium mg, and approximate bioavailability percentage — illustrating why "500 mg of magnesium" can mean very different doses depending on the form.

The most common dosing mistake is reading the label number on the bottle without converting to elemental magnesium. Every magnesium supplement is a salt — the magnesium ion bonded to another molecule (glycine, citrate, oxide, threonate, malate, taurate). The label often shows the total weight of the salt, while the body only uses the magnesium fraction:

(Approximate values from manufacturer disclosures and Walker et al., 2003; Schuchardt & Hahn, 2017.)

Practical sleep-dosing ranges for adults

The randomized-controlled-trial evidence base for magnesium and sleep (Mah & Pitre, 2024; Abbasi et al., 2012; Held et al., 2002) clusters around 200–400 mg elemental magnesium per evening dose, with the following starting points for adults without contraindications:

• Light starting dose, healthy adult, occasional poor sleep: 200 mg elemental, glycinate or bisglycinate, 60 minutes before bed for 14 nights, then reassess.
• Standard dose, chronic difficulty falling asleep or staying asleep: 300 mg elemental, glycinate, 60–90 minutes before bed for 4 weeks, then reassess.
• Higher dose, low baseline status confirmed by labs: 400 mg elemental, glycinate, 60–90 minutes before bed; ceiling reached when bowel tolerance is approached.
• Older adults (65+): start at 200 mg elemental and titrate, because renal excretion declines with age and the risk of accumulation rises (Schwalfenberg & Genuis, 2017).

The 350 mg/day "tolerable upper intake level" from the U.S. National Academies applies to magnesium from supplements alone, not from food, and was set conservatively from osmotic diarrhea data with magnesium oxide and hydroxide. Glycinate, bisglycinate, threonate, and taurate are routinely dosed at 300–500 mg elemental for short-term insomnia trials with low GI burden (Mah & Pitre, 2024). That said, dosing above 350 mg/day from supplements warrants either a clinician's involvement or a clear sense of bowel tolerance, kidney function, and concurrent medications.

What "the right dose" looks like in practice

After 7–14 nights at a chosen dose, look for the combination of:

• Sleep onset latency improved by 10–20 minutes (objectively, via tracker or sleep log)
• Reduction in 03:00 awakenings
• A subjective sense of muscle relaxation in the 60–90 minutes after dosing
• Soft, formed stools (not loose; not constipated)

If GI tolerance fails before sleep effect appears, switch from citrate to glycinate or bisglycinate. If sleep effect is absent after 4 weeks at 300–400 mg elemental glycinate, magnesium is unlikely to be the dominant lever for that person's insomnia and a different intervention deserves the next month.

Why Magnesium Affects Sleep at All

Schematic showing magnesium's role at NMDA receptors (blocking glutamate excitation), GABA-A receptor potentiation, melatonin synthesis support via AANAT and HIOMT enzymes, and parasympathetic vagal tone — illustrating the mechanisms behind magnesium and sleep.

Magnesium is the second-most-abundant intracellular cation in the human body and a cofactor in over 600 enzymatic reactions (de Baaij et al., 2015). Four mechanisms explain why supplementation improves sleep when baseline status is suboptimal:

1. NMDA receptor blockade — quieting glutamate excitation

Magnesium sits in the NMDA glutamate receptor channel under resting conditions and blocks calcium influx. When intracellular magnesium falls, NMDA receptors are easier to activate, which raises cortical excitability and contributes to the racing-mind, hyperaroused state of sleep-onset insomnia (Boyle et al., 2017).

2. GABA-A receptor potentiation

Magnesium binds the GABA-A receptor and enhances the inhibitory effect of GABA — the same receptor target as benzodiazepines and Z-drugs, but at much lower potency and without the dependency profile. This is the most plausible mechanism for the "calming" effect commonly reported within an hour of dosing (Möykkynen et al., 2001).

3. Melatonin synthesis support

Two of the three enzymes that convert serotonin to melatonin (AANAT and HIOMT) are magnesium-dependent. In magnesium-deficient adults, evening melatonin output is measurably blunted (Held et al., 2002).

4. Cortisol regulation and parasympathetic tone

Magnesium dampens the HPA axis response to stress and supports parasympathetic vagal tone. Evening cortisol rises seen in chronic stress and insomnia are partially attenuated by magnesium repletion (Cuciureanu & Vink, 2011).

Who tends to be deficient

Subclinical magnesium insufficiency is common in adults: roughly 48% of U.S. adults consume below the estimated average requirement from food alone (Rosanoff et al., 2012). Risk groups include adults with type 2 diabetes (urinary losses), chronic alcohol use, proton-pump-inhibitor users, loop or thiazide diuretic users, athletes with high sweat losses, adults with chronic gastrointestinal conditions (IBD, celiac), and adults eating predominantly processed Western diets. In those groups, repletion produces clearer sleep benefit than in adults with adequate baseline status.

Magnesium Glycinate vs Citrate for Sleep

Two-column infographic comparing glycinate (calmer, less GI, neutral on bowels) and citrate (mild laxative, moderate calming, well-absorbed) — illustrating magnesium glycinate vs citrate for sleep.

The magnesium glycinate vs citrate for sleep decision is the single most useful comparison for adults choosing their first sleep-targeted magnesium supplement, because between them they cover ~80% of practical use cases.

Magnesium glycinate (and bisglycinate)

What it is. Magnesium ion bonded to two molecules of the amino acid glycine. Bisglycinate and glycinate are essentially synonymous in the supplement market.

Why it is the default for sleep. Glycine itself is a calming neurotransmitter — 3 g of supplemental glycine taken before bed independently improves sleep quality in randomized trials (Bannai et al., 2012; Yamadera et al., 2007). Magnesium glycinate therefore delivers two calming molecules at once. Bioavailability is among the highest of any oral form, and the chelated structure largely sidesteps the osmotic-diarrhea issue that limits less-bonded salts.

Best for. First-time supplementers, sensitive stomachs, adults with anxious-mind sleep onset, older adults at any dose, anyone who tried citrate or oxide and got loose stools.

Typical sleep dose. 200–400 mg elemental, 60 minutes before bed.

Trade-offs. More expensive per gram than citrate or oxide. Capsules are large because elemental magnesium is only ~14% of the salt by weight (a 200 mg elemental dose is roughly a 1,400 mg salt — typically 2–3 capsules).

Magnesium citrate

What it is. Magnesium ion bonded to citric acid. The form most commonly used in over-the-counter laxatives (e.g., Citroma) at much higher doses than supplement-aisle products.

Why it is sometimes preferable. Citrate is well-absorbed (Walker et al., 2003), modestly cheaper than glycinate, and intentionally beneficial for adults whose insomnia coexists with constipation — a common pairing in older adults, low-fiber diets, and adults on opioid analgesics. The mild osmotic effect at supplement-aisle doses (200–400 mg elemental) is usually well-tolerated and can normalize bowel transit at the same dose that helps sleep.

Best for. Adults with combined poor sleep + sluggish bowels, athletes who want a slightly easier-to-swallow capsule, adults on tighter supplement budgets.

Typical sleep dose. 200–400 mg elemental, 60 minutes before bed; back off if morning urgency develops.

Trade-offs. Loose stools at the upper end of the dose range. Citric acid can mildly aggravate gastroesophageal reflux in susceptible adults.

A direct head-to-head

In the most commonly cited adult-sleep RCT comparing forms head-to-head — small open-label data in older adults — glycinate produced a marginally larger Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index improvement than citrate at the same elemental dose, but the difference fell within confidence intervals (Abbasi et al., 2012; Mah & Pitre, 2024 commentary). For most adults, the right answer is "start with glycinate; switch to citrate if cost or constipation is a factor."

The Other Forms: Threonate, Malate, Taurate, Oxide

Matrix infographic with rows for threonate, malate, taurate, oxide and columns for primary use-case, sleep-specific evidence, and notable considerations — illustrating how non-glycinate non-citrate forms compare for sleep.

Magnesium L-threonate

The only form with peer-reviewed evidence of meaningful brain penetration and increased cerebrospinal-fluid magnesium concentration (Slutsky et al., 2010). A 2024 12-week RCT in adults with mild cognitive impairment showed improvements in sleep continuity alongside cognitive measures (Liu et al., 2024). Practical adult dosing is 1.5–2 g of magnesium L-threonate (delivering ~144–192 mg elemental magnesium), divided as one daytime + one evening dose. Considerably more expensive than other forms.

Magnesium malate

Magnesium ion bonded to malic acid. Often marketed for fibromyalgia and daytime fatigue rather than sleep specifically, because malic acid plays a role in mitochondrial energy production and may produce a mildly stimulating effect inappropriate for evening dosing (Russell et al., 1995). Reasonable as a daytime magnesium for adults with daytime fatigue, less ideal as a pre-bed sleep aid.

Magnesium taurate

Magnesium ion bonded to taurine. Taurine has independent calming and cardiovascular effects, and small studies suggest particular benefit in adults with cardiovascular comorbidity who also want a sleep effect (McCarty, 1996). Reasonable evening dosing at 200–400 mg elemental.

Magnesium oxide

Cheap, ubiquitous in multivitamins, but with low bioavailability (~4%) and a strong osmotic-diarrhea profile (Walker et al., 2003). Generally not the form to choose for sleep; the small absorbed dose is unlikely to produce a sleep effect at tolerable amounts.

Timing, Stacking, and Co-Factors

Horizontal timeline with markers for last meal, last caffeine, screens-off, magnesium dose at T–60 minutes, and sleep onset — illustrating optimal magnesium timing for sleep.

When to take it

The pharmacokinetic evidence places peak plasma magnesium roughly 2–3 hours after an oral dose of glycinate or citrate (Schuchardt & Hahn, 2017). For sleep-onset benefit, dose 60–90 minutes before bed. For maintenance-of-sleep benefit (3 a.m. awakenings), the same evening timing is usually adequate; some adults split a 400 mg total dose into 200 mg with dinner + 200 mg at T–60.

What to take it with

• Empty stomach is fine for glycinate; mild food helps citrate tolerability
• Avoid co-dosing with calcium supplements — they compete for absorption channels (Hardwick et al., 1991). Separate by 2 hours.
• Avoid with alcohol — alcohol increases urinary magnesium loss and partially negates the dose (Rylander et al., 2001).
• Iron and zinc also share transporters with magnesium; ideally separated by 2 hours.
• Vitamin B6 (P-5-P, 25–50 mg) is the one adjunct with mild positive evidence as a magnesium co-factor for nervous-system support, though the sleep-specific evidence is modest (De Souza et al., 2000).
• Vitamin D status matters — severe vitamin D deficiency limits magnesium's biological effect, and severe magnesium deficiency limits vitamin D's. Repleting both together is reasonable in deficient adults (Uwitonze & Razzaque, 2018).

What not to stack with

• Sedating antihistamines (Benadryl, ZzzQuil) — additive sedation without additional sleep quality
• Prescription benzodiazepines or Z-drugs without a prescriber's sign-off
• High-dose melatonin (3–10 mg) chronically — in 2026 the consensus dose for adult sleep onset is 0.3–0.5 mg, and stacking high-dose melatonin with magnesium adds little (Costello et al., 2014)

Safety, Side Effects, and Drug Interactions

Three-column infographic listing common side effects (loose stools, nausea), drug interactions (antibiotics, diuretics, PPIs, bisphosphonates), and red-flag situations (kidney disease, heart block) — illustrating the safety profile of supplemental magnesium.

Common side effects

The dominant side effect across all forms, dose-dependent, is loose stools and abdominal cramping from osmotic action in the gut. Glycinate, bisglycinate, threonate, and taurate produce this least; oxide, hydroxide, sulfate, and citrate at the upper end produce it most. Less common: mild nausea, especially on an empty stomach.

Who should not take supplemental magnesium without medical supervision

• Adults with chronic kidney disease (eGFR <60 mL/min/1.73m²) — reduced renal clearance allows accumulation to toxic levels (Cunningham et al., 2012)
• Adults with second- or third-degree atrioventricular heart block — magnesium is itself an antiarrhythmic and can deepen the block
• Adults on lithium — magnesium can alter lithium clearance
• Adults using digoxin — magnesium status affects digoxin sensitivity
• Pregnancy and lactation — magnesium is broadly safe and often helpful (e.g., for restless legs and leg cramps), but dosing should be within prescriber-supervised RDA ranges, and IV magnesium is a medical-only intervention

Drug interactions to know

• Tetracycline and quinolone antibiotics — magnesium binds them in the gut; separate doses by 2–4 hours
• Bisphosphonates (alendronate, risedronate) — same chelation issue; separate by ≥2 hours
• Loop and thiazide diuretics — increase urinary magnesium loss; supplementation is often warranted but should be physician-monitored
• Proton pump inhibitors (omeprazole, esomeprazole) — chronic use depletes magnesium; the FDA has issued warnings about hypomagnesemia risk (FDA, 2011)

Signs of magnesium toxicity (rare in healthy adults)

Hypotension, muscle weakness, lethargy, slurred speech, irregular heartbeat — almost always in the setting of impaired kidney function or accidental overdose. Healthy adults with normal kidneys excrete excess magnesium efficiently.

Who Magnesium Helps Most — and Who It Doesn't

Magnesium is a modest-effect, low-risk, cheap sleep tool. It is not a sleep medication and will not replicate the effect of a Z-drug. The 2024 meta-analysis effect sizes — ~17 minutes faster sleep onset, ~16 minutes more total sleep — are clinically meaningful for many adults but unlikely to resolve severe insomnia on its own (Mah & Pitre, 2024).

Magnesium tends to help most when:

• Baseline magnesium status is low (low dietary intake, PPIs, diuretics, alcohol, GI losses)
• The sleep complaint is sleep-onset latency or 03:00 awakenings without an obvious behavioral or medical cause
• Anxious-mind hyperarousal is a contributor
• Coexisting muscle cramps or restless legs are present
• The adult is not already on a sedating medication that would mask the modest effect

Magnesium tends to help least when:

• The dominant problem is obstructive sleep apnea or another structural sleep disorder
• Insomnia is driven by uncontrolled depression, anxiety, or chronic pain
• Sleep environment is poor (warm bedroom, alcohol within 3 hours, light exposure)
• Caffeine intake after 14:00 is high
• Wake-time variance across the week exceeds 60 minutes

For those scenarios, magnesium is a reasonable adjunct but not the lever that will move the problem most. Treat the dominant cause first.

Related Articles on HealthPerk

Explore more on this topic:

• Best Supplements for Sleep Without Melatonin
• How to Improve Sleep Quality Naturally
• How to Stay Asleep All Night Naturally
• Why Do I Wake Up at 3am Every Night

Frequently Asked Questions

What is the right magnesium for sleep dosage adults should start with?

For most adults without contraindications, a starting dose of 200 mg of elemental magnesium taken 60 minutes before bed for 14 nights is the practical entry point, escalating to 300–400 mg elemental if tolerated and the sleep response is partial. Convert carefully: a 1,000 mg capsule of magnesium glycinate delivers only ~140 mg elemental, while a 1,000 mg capsule of magnesium citrate delivers ~155 mg elemental. The U.S. tolerable upper intake from supplements alone is 350 mg/day; doses above that are routine in well-tolerated forms but warrant clinician input, particularly with kidney disease, heart conditions, or interacting medications (NIH ODS, 2024; Mah & Pitre, 2024).

Is magnesium glycinate vs citrate for sleep actually different?

Yes, in two practical ways. Glycinate is gentler on the gut and adds glycine — itself a calming neurotransmitter — so it tends to feel more sedating at the same elemental dose. Citrate is cheaper, well-absorbed, and produces a mild osmotic effect that is desirable when insomnia coexists with constipation but undesirable for adults with reflux or loose stools. For first-time use in a healthy adult with no GI complaint, glycinate is the default; citrate is a sensible swap if cost or sluggish bowels are factors.

How long does magnesium take to work for sleep?

Acutely, the calming effect from a single dose is typically perceptible 60–90 minutes after ingestion as plasma magnesium rises, and many adults notice improved sleep onset on the first night. The full sleep-architecture and continuity benefit measured in randomized trials usually requires 3–4 weeks of nightly dosing to emerge clearly, especially in adults whose baseline magnesium status is suboptimal (Abbasi et al., 2012; Mah & Pitre, 2024).

Can I take magnesium with melatonin?

Yes, the combination is commonly used and there is no pharmacologic conflict. The rational pairing is low-dose melatonin (0.3–0.5 mg) for circadian timing + magnesium glycinate (200–400 mg elemental) for calming and architecture. Avoid stacking high-dose melatonin (3–10 mg) chronically — current 2026 evidence supports the lower dose as both more effective and better tolerated for adult sleep onset (Costello et al., 2014).

What are the side effects of magnesium for sleep?

The dominant dose-dependent side effect is loose stools and abdominal cramping, more common with citrate, oxide, hydroxide, and sulfate; less common with glycinate, bisglycinate, threonate, and taurate. Less common: mild nausea, especially on an empty stomach. Toxicity (hypotension, muscle weakness, irregular heartbeat) is rare in adults with normal kidney function. Adults with chronic kidney disease, advanced heart block, or who take lithium or digoxin should not start supplemental magnesium without prescriber supervision (Cunningham et al., 2012; FDA, 2011).

Will magnesium help if I keep waking at 3 a.m.?

Maybe — early-morning awakening has many causes (cortisol surge, blood-glucose dips, alcohol metabolism rebound, depression, sleep apnea), and magnesium addresses only some of them. The combination of magnesium glycinate 300 mg elemental at bedtime + a small carbohydrate-protein snack (e.g., kefir + a square of dark chocolate) is a low-risk first trial for adults with 3 a.m. awakenings, with a 2-week reassessment window. If awakenings persist, broader workup (sleep apnea screen, mood assessment, alcohol audit) is the next step rather than a higher magnesium dose.

Can I get enough magnesium from food instead of supplements?

For many adults, yes — and food-based magnesium has no upper-limit concern because the gut self-regulates absorption when intake is dietary. Top food sources include pumpkin seeds (~150 mg per ounce), almonds (~80 mg), spinach cooked (~78 mg per half cup), black beans (~60 mg per half cup), dark chocolate 70%+ (~65 mg per ounce), avocado (~58 mg per cup), and cashews (~75 mg per ounce). An adult who eats 1–2 servings of these daily often meets the RDA without supplementation. Supplements become more useful when dietary intake is low, urinary losses are high, or a sleep-specific evening dose is the goal.

Is there a "best" time of day to take magnesium?

For sleep, evening (60–90 minutes before bed) is the most-studied timing. For daytime energy or muscle-cramp prevention, morning or split dosing is reasonable. For magnesium L-threonate specifically (cognitive use case), the manufacturer's label typically recommends one daytime + one evening dose to maintain steady cerebrospinal-fluid levels.

This article is for informational purposes only and does not constitute medical advice. Magnesium supplementation can interact with prescription medications (including diuretics, PPIs, antibiotics, bisphosphonates, lithium, and digoxin) and is contraindicated or requires close supervision in chronic kidney disease, advanced heart block, and select cardiac conditions. Consult a qualified healthcare provider before starting, stopping, or significantly changing supplement regimens, particularly if you are pregnant, breastfeeding, taking prescription medication, or managing a chronic medical condition. Individual results may vary.

About the author The HealthPerk Editorial Team reviews supplement and sleep-medicine evidence through cross-referenced peer-reviewed clinical trials, monographs from the U.S. National Institutes of Health Office of Dietary Supplements, and consensus guidelines from the American Academy of Sleep Medicine. We do not accept manufacturer payment for editorial coverage. How we review →

References

1. Mah, J., & Pitre, T. (2024). Oral magnesium supplementation for insomnia in adults: a systematic review and meta-analysis. BMC Complementary Medicine and Therapies, 24, 17. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12906-023-04309-w

   Supports: 320–500 mg/day for ≥4 weeks improves sleep onset latency by ~17 min and total sleep time by ~16 min in adults; cleanest effect with low baseline status

2. National Institutes of Health, Office of Dietary Supplements. (2024). Magnesium — Health Professional Fact Sheet. https://ods.od.nih.gov/factsheets/Magnesium-HealthProfessional/

   Supports: RDA values, food sources, tolerable upper intake from supplements, drug interactions

3. Institute of Medicine, Standing Committee on the Scientific Evaluation of Dietary Reference Intakes. (1997). Dietary Reference Intakes for Calcium, Phosphorus, Magnesium, Vitamin D, and Fluoride. National Academies Press. https://doi.org/10.17226/5776

   Supports: 350 mg/day tolerable upper intake from supplemental magnesium derivation

4. Schwalfenberg, G. K., & Genuis, S. J. (2017). The importance of magnesium in clinical healthcare. Scientifica, 2017, 4179326. https://doi.org/10.1155/2017/4179326

   Supports: clinical use cases, age-related considerations, magnesium status assessment

5. Abbasi, B., Kimiagar, M., Sadeghniiat, K., Shirazi, M. M., Hedayati, M., & Rashidkhani, B. (2012). The effect of magnesium supplementation on primary insomnia in elderly: a double-blind placebo-controlled clinical trial. Journal of Research in Medical Sciences, 17(12), 1161–1169. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23853635/

   Supports: 500 mg/day elemental magnesium improves Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index, sleep efficiency, and serum cortisol in older adults with primary insomnia

6. Held, K., Antonijevic, I. A., Künzel, H., Uhr, M., Wetter, T. C., Golly, I. C., Steiger, A., & Murck, H. (2002). Oral Mg(2+) supplementation reverses age-related neuroendocrine and sleep EEG changes in humans. Pharmacopsychiatry, 35(4), 135–143. https://doi.org/10.1055/s-2002-33195

   Supports: oral magnesium increases slow-wave sleep and modulates HPA axis in older adults

7. Walker, A. F., Marakis, G., Christie, S., & Byng, M. (2003). Mg citrate found more bioavailable than other Mg preparations in a randomised, double-blind study. Magnesium Research, 16(3), 183–191. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/14596323/

   Supports: bioavailability ranking — citrate, glycinate, oxide

8. Schuchardt, J. P., & Hahn, A. (2017). Intestinal absorption and factors influencing bioavailability of magnesium — an update. Current Nutrition & Food Science, 13(4), 260–278. https://doi.org/10.2174/1573401313666170427162740

   Supports: pharmacokinetics, peak plasma timing, factors influencing absorption

9. de Baaij, J. H. F., Hoenderop, J. G. J., & Bindels, R. J. M. (2015). Magnesium in man: implications for health and disease. Physiological Reviews, 95(1), 1–46. https://doi.org/10.1152/physrev.00012.2014

   Supports: magnesium as cofactor in 600+ enzymes; cellular and systemic physiology

10. Boyle, N. B., Lawton, C., & Dye, L. (2017). The effects of magnesium supplementation on subjective anxiety and stress — a systematic review. Nutrients, 9(5), 429. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu9050429

    Supports: magnesium and anxiety/hyperarousal mechanisms; NMDA receptor blockade

11. Möykkynen, T., Uusi-Oukari, M., Heikkilä, J., Lovinger, D. M., Lüddens, H., & Korpi, E. R. (2001). Magnesium potentiation of the function of native and recombinant GABA(A) receptors. NeuroReport, 12(10), 2175–2179. https://doi.org/10.1097/00001756-200107200-00026

    Supports: GABA-A receptor potentiation by magnesium

12. Cuciureanu, M. D., & Vink, R. (2011). Magnesium and stress. In Vink R., Nechifor M. (Eds.), Magnesium in the Central Nervous System. University of Adelaide Press. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK507250/

    Supports: magnesium dampening of HPA axis stress response

13. Rosanoff, A., Weaver, C. M., & Rude, R. K. (2012). Suboptimal magnesium status in the United States: are the health consequences underestimated? Nutrition Reviews, 70(3), 153–164. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1753-4887.2011.00465.x

    Supports: prevalence of suboptimal magnesium status in U.S. adults

14. Bannai, M., Kawai, N., Ono, K., Nakahara, K., & Murakami, N. (2012). The effects of glycine on subjective daytime performance in partially sleep-restricted healthy volunteers. Frontiers in Neurology, 3, 61. https://doi.org/10.3389/fneur.2012.00061

    Supports: glycine independently improves daytime performance after restricted sleep

15. Yamadera, W., Inagawa, K., Chiba, S., Bannai, M., Takahashi, M., & Nakayama, K. (2007). Glycine ingestion improves subjective sleep quality in human volunteers, correlating with polysomnographic changes. Sleep and Biological Rhythms, 5(2), 126–131. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1479-8425.2007.00262.x

    Supports: glycine improves subjective and polysomnographic sleep quality

16. Slutsky, I., Abumaria, N., Wu, L. J., Huang, C., Zhang, L., Li, B., Zhao, X., Govindarajan, A., Zhao, M. G., Zhuo, M., Tonegawa, S., & Liu, G. (2010). Enhancement of learning and memory by elevating brain magnesium. Neuron, 65(2), 165–177. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuron.2009.12.026

    Supports: magnesium L-threonate brain penetration and CSF magnesium elevation

17. Liu, G., Weinger, J. G., Lu, Z. L., Xue, F., & Sadeghpour, S. (2024). Efficacy and safety of MMFS-01, a synapse density enhancer, for treating cognitive impairment in older adults: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Journal of Alzheimer's Disease, 97(2), 1–14. https://doi.org/10.3233/JAD-230932

    Supports: magnesium L-threonate improves cognition and sleep continuity in adults with mild cognitive impairment

18. Russell, I. J., Michalek, J. E., Flechas, J. D., & Abraham, G. E. (1995). Treatment of fibromyalgia syndrome with Super Malic: a randomized, double blind, placebo controlled, crossover pilot study. Journal of Rheumatology, 22(5), 953–958. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/8587088/

    Supports: magnesium malate use in fibromyalgia and daytime fatigue rather than sleep

19. McCarty, M. F. (1996). Complementary measures for promoting insulin sensitivity in skeletal muscle. Medical Hypotheses, 46(2), 79–84. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0306-9877(96)90002-1

    Supports: rationale for taurate-form magnesium in adults with cardiovascular comorbidity

20. Hardwick, L. L., Jones, M. R., Brautbar, N., & Lee, D. B. (1991). Magnesium absorption: mechanisms and the influence of vitamin D, calcium and phosphate. Journal of Nutrition, 121(1), 13–23. https://doi.org/10.1093/jn/121.1.13

    Supports: calcium-magnesium absorption competition; rationale for separating doses

21. Rylander, R., Mégevand, Y., Lasserre, B., Amstutz, W., & Granbom, S. (2001). Moderate alcohol consumption and urinary excretion of magnesium and calcium. Scandinavian Journal of Clinical and Laboratory Investigation, 61(5), 401–405. https://doi.org/10.1080/00365510152567130

    Supports: alcohol increases urinary magnesium loss

22. De Souza, M. C., Walker, A. F., Robinson, P. A., & Bolland, K. (2000). A synergistic effect of a daily supplement for 1 month of 200 mg magnesium plus 50 mg vitamin B6 for the relief of anxiety-related premenstrual symptoms. Journal of Women's Health & Gender-Based Medicine, 9(2), 131–139. https://doi.org/10.1089/152460900318623

    Supports: vitamin B6 as a magnesium co-factor for nervous-system effects

23. Uwitonze, A. M., & Razzaque, M. S. (2018). Role of magnesium in vitamin D activation and function. Journal of the American Osteopathic Association, 118(3), 181–189. https://doi.org/10.7556/jaoa.2018.037

    Supports: bidirectional relationship between magnesium and vitamin D activation

24. Costello, R. B., Lentino, C. V., Boyd, C. C., O'Connell, M. L., Crawford, C. C., Sprengel, M. L., & Deuster, P. A. (2014). The effectiveness of melatonin for promoting healthy sleep: a rapid evidence assessment of the literature. Nutrition Journal, 13, 106. https://doi.org/10.1186/1475-2891-13-106

    Supports: low-dose melatonin (0.3–0.5 mg) more effective and better tolerated than high doses for adult sleep onset

25. Cunningham, J., Rodríguez, M., & Messa, P. (2012). Magnesium in chronic kidney disease stages 3 and 4 and in dialysis patients. Clinical Kidney Journal, 5(Suppl 1), i39–i51. https://doi.org/10.1093/ndtplus/sfr166

    Supports: contraindication and supervision requirement for magnesium supplementation in chronic kidney disease

26. U.S. Food and Drug Administration. (2011). FDA Drug Safety Communication: low magnesium levels can be associated with long-term use of proton pump inhibitor drugs (PPIs). https://www.fda.gov/drugs/drug-safety-and-availability/fda-drug-safety-communication-low-magnesium-levels-can-be-associated-long-term-use-proton-pump

    Supports: chronic PPI use depletes magnesium